Evaluate the Current State of the Economy Essay

Labor market conditions are important especially for the following categories, businesses, individuals, and governments. The nation’s labor market conditions are constantly monitored by statistical analysis, unemployment rate being the primary metric. In April of 2014, the unemployment rate fell from 6.7% percent to 6.3% percent (Bureau of Labor Statistics. May 2014), which was the lowest rate since September of 2008. Since January the unemployment rate had been somewhat flat, but in April 2014 it dropped. However in April, the labor force additionally dropped by 806,000 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, May 2014) meaning the current ratio drop from 6.7% to 6.3% comparatively remains approximately the same as the constant trend. In other words, because of the decrease in workforce, the drop in unemployment may be partially a result of the decrease in workforce. The consistent level of unemployment makes shifts on AD and AS curve minor. When unemployment decreases, as it did in April, a correlation linking the drop in unemployment to an increased demand of goods and services can be made. This increased demand requires the productivity of companies to increase to meet the supply deficit, creating more jobs for individuals. With a greater demand for goods and services, there is a greater need for people to produce them, therefore a decrease in unemployment. Additionally, the decrease in unemployment means household income will improve, providing them with more disposable income. As noted above, because of the increase in demand (seen in the decline in the unemployment rate), a direct correlation can be made to an increase in supply, though delayed. The increase in supply increases the number of new employees as employers look to meet the demand for goods and services, shifting the AS  curve to the right as well. In most cases unemployment remains constant, but in US, the high unemployment rate (compared to the past) can have a negative effect on the economy. The steady unemployment rate can reduce the supply of labor in the economy, as unemployed people become discouraged and stop looking for jobs. This would shift the aggregate supply curve to the left. Also employers may use the threat of unemployment to cut wages, exploiting their workers. Expectations The great intangible factor directly affecting the economy currently is people’s expectations for future economic growth. These economic expectations influence the economy greatly. If businesses and households are more optimistic about the future of the economy, they are more likely to buy large items and make new investments, increasing the aggregate demand. The AD can change in a variety of ways. Peoples expectations causes them to spend less or be forced to cut spending, it causes the government to cut its spending, and it causes businesses to be more money conscious when choosing what their investment in goods will be from other companies. As a gauge, many people look at the gross domestic product (GDP), the broadest measure of economic activity, which grew at a 0.1% annual pace in the first quarter of 2014 (U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, April 2014). This is slow growth compared to recent annual rates of 2% to 3% (U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, April 2014). Many think the slowdown was caused by the long winter felt throughout the country. These slow growth rates shift both the AD and AS curves to the left, as consumers and business feel the affect or people’s â€Å"wait and see† attitude in economy. Assuming this is all weather based, the economy should bounce as household moral improves with the warmer spring and summer weather. Consumer expectations are also reflected in their spending. Consumer spending rose 0.3 percent last month after a downwardly revised gain of 0.2 percent in January (Mutikani, Lucia, March 2014), positive for now, but on a larger scale reports show the slowdown in real GDP growth is reflected in the downturn in exports. The exports of industrial supplies and materials as well as foods, feeds, and beverages  declined after increasing in the fourth quarter of 2013. (U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, April 2014). Additionally, imports have also declined by 0.4 percent in April, after increasing 1.8 percent in the first quarter of 2014 (Bureau of Labor Statistics. April 2014). The April drop was the first monthly decrease since the index fell 0.9 percent in November 2013 (Bureau of Labor Statistics. April 2014). Import prices also fell 0.3 percent over the past 12 months and have not recorded a year-over-year advance since the index increased 0.9 percent from July 2012 to July 2013 (Bureau of Labor Statistics. April 2014). There drops in the US economy are felt in the household sector through the implementation of monetary and physical policy which are used to combat economic declines which directly affect consumer’s expectation and spending habits. Consumer Income As mentioned above, consumers are still buying things. Consumer spending continues to be a bright spot, growing at a 3% annual pace. (Mutikani, Lucia, March 2014). This occurred even though prices of goods and services bought by U.S. residents rose 1.4 percent in the first quarter, after rising 1.5 percent in the fourth quarter of 2013. Both energy prices and food prices turned up. Excluding food and energy, prices increased 1.4 percent in the first quarter after rising 1.8 percent in the fourth quarter (U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, April 2014). This illustrates the shift in AD tow the right. Meaning consumers are willing to pay higher prices at current production rates. The increase in consumables indicates consumers have more disposable income to spend on goods and services, and they are not choosing to save. Personal income and personal saving statistic showing that personal income adjusted for inflation and taxes increased 1.9 percent in the first quarter, compared with 0.8 percent in the fourth quarter of 2013 (Mutikani, Lucia, March 2014). Incomes also rose 0.3 percent last month after rising by the same margin in January. Additionally, inflation has remained low. Combining  these factors, consumer spending, price increases, low inflation, increased personal income, will inevitably be forecasted by business as indicators to increase production. Increased production also increase supply, shifting AS to the right as business attempt to meet consumer demand. Interest Rates Interest rates in the United States are the lowest they have been in years. This indicates the policy and stance taken by the government for lending money. The government is trying to entice consumers to file for loans as well as encourage banks to lend and approve loans. With interest rates this low and consumer income increasing, one would expect consumers to increase their buying of more significant items. The aggregate demand curve shows, at various price levels, the quantity of goods and services produced domestically that consumers, businesses, and governments are willing to purchase. The increase in demand for low interest loans would shift the AD curve as a shift to the right. Domestically, the Federal Reserve expected to remain in a â€Å"wait-and-see† mode, hoping to get a clearer picture of U.S.’s future economic strength (Kurtz, Annalyn, April 2014). Moreover, the Federal Reserve has been buying bonds to stimulate the U.S. economy on and off since 2008, but the central bank is now gradually bringing that program to an end. The withdrawal process is expected to reduce bond purchases to around $45 billion a month (Kurtz, Annalyn, April 2014), and this process potentially will shift the nations monetary policy to focus more on interest rates rather than adjustments to the monetary base. These changes to the interest rates will impact capital goods decisions made by consumers and by businesses. Lower interest rates will lower the costs of major products, such as houses, and will increase business capital project spending because of the reduction in long-term investment costs. Such changes will move the aggregate demand curve will down and to the right. But, in the event of an interest rate hike, the higher real interest rates  will make capital goods relatively more expensive and cause the aggregate demand curve to shift up and to the left. Recommendations America’s recent financial crisis and the anticipated future economic outlook can be traced back to 2007 when the U.S. housing bubble burst. The bank failures created a dominos affect, creating an economic meltdown in all sectors of the US economy. Despite government attempts to help the situation, the economy has slowed and has slipped in and out of recession. As a result, the current government policies have not been effective, creating hesitations in consumer spending. Since 2008, the actions taken by the Federal Reserve have put the U.S.’s economy in jeopardy. To stem the economic slide of the U.S. housing collapse, the Federal Reserve has printed off trillions of dollars and has increased government spending in the economy hoping the influx of cash will jump start economic activity. But is has had an inverse affect. This dilution of the monetary base has diluted the value of the U.S. dollar (USD) domestically and internationally and has caused concern of consumer spending in the loanable funds market. Consumer spending is a 69% of the US GDP (The World Bank, 2013). An increase in spending would stimulate additional demand for products. With an increase in demand, business would increase productivity resulting in an improved GDP and lower unemployment. Additionally, in 2014 one of the greatest uses of a consumer’s income is to pay health care costs. The Bureau of Economic Analysis noted that the increase in health care costs was driven primarily by the implementation of the Affordable Care Act. Removing the Affordable Health Care Act will improve consumer spending, as their disposable income percentage will increase. When the financial crisis began in 2008, the U.S. national debt stood approximately at $10 trillion. Based on the US Treasuries own figures, the national debt will reach be close to $20.0 trillion by the end of this decade (US Treasury Department – Treasury Direct, 2014), greater than our nation’s GDP. Reducing government  debt takes a long time, especially with the current international influences (China, Japan, EU). A fiscal policy to increased taxes and reduced government spending would be a place to start. Additionally, a reduction in monetary base will again, strengthen the USD internationally, helping facilitate and increase import/exports. Part 2: Evaluation of Recommendations Keynesian Perspective: Based upon the thorough analysis completed above, the Keynesian model is an appropriate mechanism for stimulating an economy that is growing but at a much slower rate than what is typical during a period of economic expansion. After a couple of years of substantive growth, the numbers for the first quarter of 2014 showed a GDP increase of just 0.1%. While the unemployment numbers continue to show a decline. While stubbornly remaining at 6.7% nationally through April, the most recent numbers show significant decline to 6.3%. The mortgage interest rates fell recently to 4.29% as the housing market has slowed down recently. While the Fed is beginning to slow down buying treasury bonds, it will continue to keep interest rates low until all signs point to GDP growth returning to a normal rate of 3.28% annually. Those numbers are indicative of annual GDP growth rates from 1948 to 2009. The first quarter of 2009 saw the economy shrink by nearly 5% following the market collapse and the bank bailouts just before President Obama took office. Subsequently, the bailout of GM and Chrysler in 2009 also impacted the economy as well, but was necessary to save the industry and jobs in Detroit and elsewhere for parts manufacturers and suppliers. The risk of course was the loss of more than a million jobs, but in the end the loss was $10.5 billion in taxpayer money not repaid by GM. Classical Macroeconomic theory assumes that market conditions will sort themselves out, but the confluence of catastrophic economic issues such as: the real estate market collapse, bank insolvency, the stock market collapse and the auto industry bailouts meant looking at long-term solutions would  not provide the confidence in the markets and consumers alike. Short-term or stop gap measures needed to stem the downward spiral to depression and economic contraction were and are required to right the economic ship. Keynesian economic theory is more prone to acceptance of government stimulus as it relied on government spending during economic downturns. They Keynesians believe that the economy is made up of consumer spending, business investment and government spending and because of this, Fed monetary policy adjustments should be made to promote banks to make loans, businesses to invest in growth and expansion and consumers to have more buying power due to lower interest rates. When consumer spending is decreasing, the Keynesian theory believes that the government spending can help with economic growth. The current course of action taken by the Fed and the President should be continued for the foreseeable future until economic conditions stabilize back to the norms over the last 60-plus years. Once GDP growth returns to expansionist highs and inflation begins to rise, there may be a need to take corrective action again to slow the economy down, but for now that is not an issue. Since economic growth is lacking, government intervention is needed to help regulate and jumpstart the economy. This will allow banks to lend more, businesses to invest more and households to spend more. It is crucial for these three entities to do as such since it will help the economy grow and progress. Classical Perspective: A portion of the AS curve that is almost vertical is associated with a real GDP rate that fully employs a nation’s resources. At a rate of output, the nation has reached the limitation of its short run capacity, so an attempt to increase employment or output beyond this rat would result only in a higher aver price level. The theory is built on the fact that in the long run, a nations move gradually and automatically moves toward full employment. This inexorable like movement toward full employment is the  result of supply and demand forces that cause prices (wages, interest rates, and exchange rates) to adjust so that markets clear. And after enough time, the market will settle the supply and demand in all markets, and thereby eliminate any imbalances, such as employment. Since many classical economists do not believe that government spending gives power to the public sector and decreasing the private sector, they do not fully agree with too much government spending as it ex ploits a lot of economic resources. Example: â€Å"Suppose a nation had excessive unemployment. Classical economist would agree that a major cause of the unemployment was an average real wage rate that was above equilibrium. At this wage rate the amount of labor supplied exceeds the amount demanded, resulting in unemployment. The excessive supply of labor would put downward pressure on real wages. Falling real wages would then have two reinforcing affects that acted simultaneously to bring the labor market back into equilibrium. First, lower real wages would increase the incentive for businesses to hire workers; second, they would reduce the number of individuals in the workforce. For instance, instead of looking for work, some individuals might stay in school or remain homemakers. If real wages fell the amount of labor supplied would equal the amount demanded and unemployment would be solved.† (Marthinsen, John E. (2007)) The classical perspective emphasizes on the belief that government spending is detrimental to the economy and that the market itself is self-sufficient and can automatically adjust to increases and decrease of employment, consumer spending, business investment and so on. The current government policies have not been effective and when looking at it from this classical perspective, it might be necessary for the government to step back and let the mark equilibrate itself. References: Bureau of Labor Statistics. (April 2014), U.S. Import and Export Price Indexes Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/news.release/ximpim.nr0.htm Bureau of Labor Statistics. (May 2014), Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey Retrieved from http://data.bls.gov/timeseries/LNS14000000 Conerly, Bill (2014) Economic Forecast 2014-2015: Looking Better With Help From Oil And Gas Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/billconerly/2014/01/22/economic-forecast-2014-2015-looking-better-with-help-from-oil-and-gas/ Congressional Budget Office, (February 2014). The Budget and Economic Outlook: 2014 to 2024 Retrieved from http://www.cbo.gov/publication/45010 Kurtz, Annalyn, (April 2014). U.S. Economy Slows to Stall-Speed Retrieved from http://money.cnn.com/2014/04/30/investing/gdp-economy Marthinsen, John E. (2007) Managing in a Global Economy: Demystifying International Macroeconomics. Mason, OH: Thomas Southwestern Mutikani, Lucia (March 2014). U.S. consumers lift spending, but sentiment slips. Retrieved from http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/03/28/us-usa-economy-idUSBREA2R0UB20140328 The World Bank. (2013). Household final consumption expenditure, etc. (% of GDP) Retrieved from http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.CON.PETC.ZS U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, (April 2014). National Income and Product Accounts Gross Domestic Product: First Quarter 2014 (advance estimate). Retrieved from https://www.bea.gov/newsreleases/national/gdp/gdpnewsrelease.htm US Treasury Department – Treasury Direct, (2014). Historical Debt Outstanding – Annual 2000 – 2012 Retrieved from http://www.treasurydirect.gov/govt/reports/pd/histdebt/histdebt_histo5.htm

Religion in Colonial America Essay

Throughout the colonial period with British North American settlement, the subjects of religion and economics often come hand-in-hand when associated with significance. Although economic concerns of development and exploration had its part in British settlement into the New World, religious entanglement, such as Puritan progression and The Great Awakening , played a bigger role in the rise of the American colonies. The flee for religious freedom and organization based on religion in a colony outweigh the concerns for economics. The American colonies valued their religion, as well as making it the most valuable part of their lives. In the early 1500’s certain Christians from different European nations went against the Roman authority of the pope. Religious wars/conflicts, competition, and the Protestant Reformation all contributed to a religious motive for exploration and colonization into North America. Many British immigrants came to the new world not only looking for wealth, but for a religious freedom and structured society. This pull factor created a foundation for religion in the new colonies many people fled the home country to avoid religious persecution and inferiority. Furthermore, Puritans, who colonized the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629, sought to create an empire of religious tolerance. Under John Winthrop, the religious group taught the new colony that the people should provide a whole world a model of Christian society ought to be, as in â€Å"A City upon a Hill†. The groups of people who wanted to separate from the church of England or go against the Roman catholic Pope went to the New World solely for religious freedoms, creating a religious superiority put into their new location. Immigration into America was by far dominated by groups of people avoiding the oppression and persecution faced by royal and religious leaders in their homeland; religious refuge provided means for these colonists to build upon a belief of religious tolerance and organization. As colonies were developing and new groups of people/ideas were diffusing, religious conflict and authority became prominent. A major religious event  in the life of the American people, The Great Religious Awakening, highlighted the valuable role of religion in the people’s lives. The Awakening permanently reflected the need for religious tolerance and organization in a group of people. Also, religious groups such as the Baptists, Methodists, and Presbyterians (all minority religious groups) took root and grew. Along with awareness to significance, the movement highlighted the presence of religious feeling among masses of people. A major division between orthodox and â€Å"New Lights† increased religious diversity and created a greater competition between the groups to attract followers. This historical event exposed a new way of thinking for the peoples – democracy. In fact, the Great Awakening brought a shared common experience for Americans regardless of race or religion. The Great Awakening brought political and religious impact to the Americans, which still influences the nation today. Even though religion posed to be the biggest concern associated with British settlement in the New World, economic development proved to contribute in the time period. Columbus’s exploration of the New World was based on the hope to find land, resources, and wealth; all pertaining to the progress and bringing up of Europe’s economy. Moreover, the thirteen colonies developed ways, (such as Jamestown’s tobacco crop) to exploit resources as means for survival. The North American Colonies Association with trade (Columbian Exchange) put them in competition with other empires to compete for wealth and progression as a community. Economic concerns engaged in the colonies’ organization; however, religion was the basis for British settlement and the foundation for population growth, social movement, and political structure. Although economic concerns of development and exploration had its part in British settlement into the New World, religious entanglement proved to be more important in the race for American development. Religion posed as the main factor for the peoples, and led them to make decisions and act upon their beliefs. In this colonial time period, religion proved to be a greater power in the daily lives of Americans.

Dissolved Oxygen Essay

Oxygen in Liquids (DISSOLVED OXYGEN) Dissolved Oxygen – the amount of dissolved oxygen in a body of water as an indication of the degree of the health of water and its ability to support a balanced aquatic ecosystem. Oxygen – is a clear, colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas that dissolves in water. Small but important amounts of it are dissolved in water. OXYGEN: Aquatic Life Depends on it Plants and Animals depend on dissolved oxygen for survival. Lack of dissolved oxygen can cause aquatic animals to leave quickly they are or face death. Factors Affecting Oxygen Levels Temperature Rate of Photosynthesis Degree of Light Penetration (turbidity & water depth) Degree of Water Turbulence or Wave action The amount of oxygen used by respiration and decay of organic matter Oxygen in the Balance Dissolved Oxygen levels that are at 90% and 110% saturation level or higher consistently considered healthy or good. If the Dissolved Oxygen are below 90%, there may be large amounts of oxygen demanding materials. What Is Dissolved Oxygen In Water? Dissolved oxygen in water is vital for underwater life. It is what aquatic creatures need to breathe. Why Is Dissolved Oxygen Important? Just as we need air to breathe, aquatic organisms need dissolved oxygen to respire. It is necessary for the survival of fish, invertebrates, bacteria, and underwater plants. How Is Dissolved Oxygen Measured? Dissolved oxygen concentration can be reported as milligrams per liter, parts per million, or as percent air saturation. Polarographic Cell It is very similar to the galvanic cell. However, the polarographic cell has two noble-metal electrodes and requires a polarizing voltage to reduce the oxygen. The dissolved oxygen in the sample diffuses through the membrane into the electrolyte, which usually is an aqueous KC1 solution. If there is a constant polarizing voltage (usually 0.8 V) across the electrodes, the oxygen is reduced at the cathode, and the resulting current How is proportional to the oxygen content of the electrolyte. This current flow is detected as an indication of oxygen content. Galvanic Cell All galvanic cells consist of an electrolyte and two electrodes (Figure 8.43c). The oxygen content of the electrolyte is equalized with that of the sample. The reaction is spontaneous; no external voltage is applied. In this reaction, the cathode reduces the oxygen into hydroxide, thus releasing four electrons for each molecule of oxygen. These electrons cause a current flow through the electrolyte.. The magnitude of the current flow is in proportion to the oxygen concentration in the electrolyte. Flow through Cells In the flow-through cells, the process sample stream is bubbled through the electrolyte. The oxygen concentration of the electrolyte is therefore in equilibrium with the sample’s oxygen content, and the resulting ion current between the electrodes is representative of this concentration. These types of cells are usually provided with sampling consisting of (but not limited to) filtering and scrubbing components and flow, pressure, and temperature regulators. Thallium Cell Thallium cells are somewhat unique in their operating principle and cannot be classified into the category of either galvanic or polarographic cells. At the same time, they are of the electrochemical type. One thallium-electrode cell design is somewhat similar in appearance to the unit illustrated on Figure 8.43c except that it has no membrane or electrolyte. This cell has a thallium outer-ring electrode and an inner reference electrode. When oxygen contacts the thallium, the potential developed by the cell is a function of  the thallous ion concentration at the face of the electrode, and the ion concentration is in proportion to the concentration of dissolved oxygen. Fluorescence-based Sensor In this case, a compound containing ruthenium is immobilized in a gas-permeable matrix called a sol-gel. Sol-gels are very low-density, silica-based matrices suitable for immobilizing chemical compounds such as the ruthenium compound used in this measurement technique. Effectively, the sol-gel is equivalent to the membrane in a conventional DO sensor. Using fiber optics, light from a light-emitting diode is transferred to the backside of the sol-gel coating. The emitted fluorescence is collected from the backside of the sol-gel with another optical fiber and its intensity is detected by photodiode. A simplified sensor design is shown in Figure 8.43g. If no oxygen is present, the intensity of the emitted light will be at its maximum value. If oxygen is present, the fluorescence will be quenched, and the emitted intensity will decrease. Twinkler Titration The Winkler Method is a technique used to measure dissolved oxygen in freshwater systems. Dissolved oxygen is used as an indicator of the health of a water body, where higher dissolved oxygen concentrations are correlated with high productivity and little pollution. Temperature Effects Pressure Effects Salinity Effects Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a measure of the oxygen used by microorganisms to decompose this waste. If there is a large quantity of organic waste in the water supply, there will also be a lot of bacteria present working to decompose this waste. In this case, the demand for oxygen will be high (due to all the bacteria) so the BOD level will be high. As the waste is consumed or dispersed through the water, BOD levels will begin to decline. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is a measure for the quantity of oxygen required for the biodegradation of organic matter (carbonaceous demand) in water.It can also indicate the amount of oxygen used to oxidise reduced forms of nitrogen (nitrogenous demand), unless their oxidation is prevented by an inhibitor. A test is used to measure the amount of oxygen consumed by these organisms during a specified period of time (usually 5 days at 20 ÌŠÌŠÌŠÌŠC). Classification: BOD is devided in two parts which is Carbonaceous Oxygen Demand and the Nitrogenous Oxygen Demand. Carbonaceous Oxygen Demand – it is the amount of oxygen consumed by the microorganisms during decomposing carbohydrate material. Nitrogenous Oxygen Demand – it is the amount of oxygen consumed by the microorganisms during decomposing nitrogenous materials. Relationship of DO and BOD If the Dissolve Oxygen (DO) of a water is high, the Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)is low. If the BOD of the water is hight, the DO is low.Therefore DO and BOD is inversely Proportional to each other. Why we should need to know BOD? BOD directly affects the amount of dissolved oxygen in rivers and streams. The greater the BOD, the more rapidly oxygen is depleted in the stream. This means less oxygen is available to higher forms of aquatic life. The consequences of high BOD are the same as those for low dissolved oxygen: aquatic organisms become stressed, suffocate, and die. Knowledge of oxygen utilization of a polluted water supply is important because: 1. It is the measure of the pollution load, relative to oxygen utilization by other life in the water; 2. It is the means for predicting progress of aerobic decomposition and the amount of self-purification taking place; 3. It is the measure of the oxygen demand load removal efficiency by different treatment process. Factors that contributes to variations in BOD The Seed Is the bacterial culture that affects the oxidation of materials in the sample. If the biological seed is not acclimated to the particular wastewater, erroneous results are frequently obtained. pH The BOD results are also greatly affected by the pH of the sample, especially if it is lower than 6.5 or higher than 8.3. In order to achieve uniform conditions, the sample should be buffered to a pH of about 7. Temperature Standard test condition calls for a temperature of 20 ÌŠC (68 ÌŠF). field tests often require operation at other temperatures and, consequently, the results tend to vary unless temperature corrections are applied. Toxicity The presence of toxic materials may result increase in the BOD value as a specific sample is dilluted for the BOD test.Consistent value may be obtained either by removing the toxic materials from the sample or By developing a seed that is compatible with the toxic material in the sample. Incubation Time The usual standard lab test incubation time is 5 days, results may occur at a flat part or occur at a steeply rising portion.Depending on the type of seed and the type of oxidable material, divergent result can be expected. Nitrification In the usual course BOD test, the oxygen consumption rises steeply at the beginning of the test owing to attack on carbohydrate materials. Another sharp increase in oxygen utilization occurs sometime during 10th to 15th day in those samples containing nitrogenous materials. How we determine or measure BOD? Five-Day BOD Procedure The BOD test takes 5 days to complete and is performed using a dissolved oxygen test kit. The BOD level is determined by comparing the DO level of a water sample taken immediately with the DO level of a water sample that has been incubated in a dark location for 5 days. The difference between the two DO levels represents the amount of oxygen required for the decomposition of any organic material in the sample and is a good approximation of the BOD level. Test procedures: 1. Take 2 samples of water 2. Record the DO level (ppm) of one immediately using the method described in the dissolved oxygen test. 3. Place the second water sample in an incubator in complete darkness at 20oC for 5days. If you don’t have an incubator, wrap the water sample bottle in aluminum foil or black electrical tape and store in a dark place at room temperature (20 ÌŠC or 68  °F). 4. After 5 days, take another dissolved oxygen reading (ppm) using the dissolved oxygen test kit. 5. Subtract the Day 5 reading from the Day 1 reading to determine the BOD level. Record your final BOD result in ppm. Note: Generally, when BOD levels are high, there is a decline in DO levels. This is because the demand for oxygen by the bacteria is high and they are taking that oxygen from the oxygen dissolved in the water. If there is no organic waste present in the water, there won’t be as many bacteria present to decompose it and thus the BOD will tend to be lower and the DO level will tend to be higher. At high BOD levels, organisms such as macro  invertebrates that are more tolerant of lower dissolved oxygen may appear and become numerous. Organisms that need higher oxygen levels) will NOT survive. Extended BOD Test Continuation of BOD test beyond 5 days shows a continuing oxygen demand, with a sharp increase in BOD rate at the 10th day owing to nitrification. The latter process involves biological attack on nitrogenous organic material accompanied by an increase in BOD rate. The oxygen demand continues at a uniform rate for an extended time. Manometric BOD Test In the manometric procedure, the seeded sample is confined in a closed system that includes an appreciable amount of air . As the oxygen in the water is depleted, it is replenish by the gas phase. A potassium hydroxide (KOH) absorber within the system removes any gaseous carbon dioxide generated by bacterial action. The oxygen removed from the air phase results in a drop in pressure that is that is removed with a manometer. This fall is then related to the BOD of the sample. Electrolysis System for BOD The measuring principle for all electrolytic respirometers is quite similar. As micro-organisms respire they use oxygen converting the organic carbon in the solution to CO2 gas, which is absorbed to alkali. This causes a reduction in the gas pressure, which can be sensed with various sensors or membranes. A small current is created in electrolysis cell and this generates oxidation/reduction reactions in the electrolysis cell and oxygen is formed at the anode. Electrolysis of water can supply oxygen to a closed system as incubation proceeds . At constant current, the time during which electrolysis generates the oxygen to keep the system pressure constant is a direct measure of the oxygen demand. The amount of oxygen produced by the electrolysis correlates with the amount of oxygen consumed by bacteria. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) Is the standard method for indirect measurements of the amount of pollution in a sample of water that cannot be oxidized biologically. Is based on the chemical decomposition of organic and inorganic contaminants, dissolved or suspended in water. Why Measure Chemical Oxygen Demand? It is often measured as a rapid indicator for organic pollutant in water. Normally measured in both municipal and industrial wastewater treatment plants and gives an indication of the efficiency of the treatment process. It is measured on both influent and effluent water. Standard Dichromate COD Procedure A sample is heated to its boiling point with known amounts of sulfuric acid and potassium dichromate. The loss of water is minimized by the reflux condenser. After 2 h, the solution is cooled, and the amount of dichromate that reacted with oxidizable material in the water sample is determined by titrating the excess potassium dichromate with ferrous sulfate. Dichromate consumed is calculated as to oxygen equivalent for the sample and stated as milligrams of oxygen per liter of sample (ml/l). Factors preventing the concordance of BOD values to COD values: Many organic materials are oxidizable by dichromate but not biochemically oxidizable, and vice versa. For example, pyridine, benzene, and ammonia are not attacked by the dichromate procedure. A number of inorganic substances such as sulfide, sulfites, thiosulfates, nitrites, and ferrous iron are oxidized by dichromate, creating an inorganic COD that is misleading when estimating the organic content of wastewater. Although the factor of seed acclimation will give erroneously low results on the BOD tests, COD results are not dependent on acclimation. Chlorides interfere with the COD analysis, and their effect must be minimized in order to obtain consistent results. The standard procedure provides for only a limited amount of chlorides in the sample. This is usually accomplished by diluting the sample to achieve a lower chloride concentration and interference. This can be a problem for low COD  concentration samples, as the dilution may dilute the COD concentration below the detection level or to levels at which accuracy and repeatability are poor. COD Detector The term COD usually refers to the laboratory dichromate oxidation procedure, although it has also been applied to other procedures that differ greatly from the dichromate method but which do involve chemical reaction. These methods have been embodied in instruments both for manual operation in the laboratory and for automatic operation online. They have the distinct advantage of reducing analysis time from days (5-day BOD) and hours (dichromate, respirometer) to minutes. Automatic On-Line Designs Takes a 5 cc sample from the flowing process stream. Injects it into the reflux chamber after mixing it together with dilution water (if any) agents. One ozone-based scheme enriches dilution water with and with two reagents: dichromate solution and sulfuric acid. The reagents also contain an oxidation catalyst (silver sulfate) and a chemical that complexes chlorides in the solution (mercuric sulfate). The mixture is boiled at 302 °F (150 °C) by the heater. Vapors are condensed by the cooling water in the reflux condenser. During which the dichromate ions are reduced to trivalent chromic ions, as the oxygen demanding organics are oxidized in the sample. The chromic ions give the solution a green color. The COD concentration is measured by detecting the amount of dichromate converted to chromic ions by measuring the intensity of the green color through a fiber-optic detector. The microprocessor-controlled package is available with automatic zeroing, calibration, and flushing features. Sampling and Traditional Parameter Parameter Limit Value Sampling: pH, Standard Units 6.0 – 9.0 Traditional Parameters: Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) ≠¤ 30 ppm Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) ≠¤ 200 ppm COD has a large value than BOD because BOD measurement is based only in decomposition of organic matter while COD measures the decomposition of both organic and Inorganic compound. Sources of Error Cause of using nonhomogeneous sample is the largest error. Use of volumetric flasks and volumetric pipettes with a large bore. Oxidizing agent must be precisely measured. Make sure that the vials are clean and free of air bubbles. Always read the bottom of the meniscus at eye level. Total Oxygen Demand (TOD) The quantitative measurement of the amount of oxygen used to burn the impurities in a liquid sample. Thus, it is a direct measure of the oxygen demand of the sample. Measurement is by continuous analysis of the concentration of oxygen in a combustion process gas effluent. A quantitative measurement of all oxidizable material in a sample water or wastewater as determined instrumentally by measuring the depletion of oxygen after high-temperature combustion. BOD and COD have long time cycles. COD use corrosive reagents with the inherent problem of disposal. Analysis is faster, approximately 3 min, and uses no liquid reagents in its analysis. Can be correlated to both COD and BOD. Unaffected by the presence of inorganic carbon. Also indicate noncarbonaceous materials that consume or contribute oxygen Since the actual measurement is oxygen consumption. Reflects the oxidation state of the chemical compound. TOD Analyzer The oxidizable components in a liquid sample introduce into the combustion tube are converted to their stable oxides by a reaction that disturbs the oxygen equilibrium in the carrier gas steam. The momentary depletion in the oxygen concentration in the carrier gas is detected by an oxygen detector and recorded as a negative oxygen peak. Sample Valves Sliding Plate Upon a signal from a cycle timer, the air actuator temporarily moves the valve to its â€Å"sample fill† position. At the same time, an air-operated actuator moves a 20-ul sample through the valve into the combustion tube. A stream of oxygen-enriched nitrogen carrier gas moves the slug of sample into the combustion tube. Rotary Sampling Valve A motor continuously rotates a sampling head, which contains a built-in sampling syringe. For part of the time, the tip of the syringe is over a trough that contains the flowing sample. 2 or more cam ramps along the rotational path cause the syringe plunger to rise and fall, thus rinsing the sample chamber. Just before the syringe reaches the combustion tube, it picks up a 20-ul sample. As it rotates over the combustion tube, it discharges the sample. Oxygen Detectors Platinum-lead Fuel Cell Fuel Cell – Generates a current in proportion to the oxygen content of the carrier gas passing through it. Before entering the cell, the gas is scrubbed in a potassium hydroxide solution, both to remove acid gases and other harmful combustion products to humidify the gas. The oxygen cell and the scrubber are located in a temperature-controlled compartment. The fuel cell output is monitored and zeroed to provide a constant baseline. The output peaks are linearly proportionate to the reduced concentration of oxygen in the carrier gas as a result of the sample’s TOD. Yttrium-doped Zirconium Oxide Ceramic Tube Coated on both sides with a porous layer of platinum. It is maintained at an elevated temperature and also provides an output that represents the reduction in oxygen concentration in the carrier gas that is a result of the sample’s TOD. The operation of these oxygen detectors involves the ionization of oxygen in both a sample and a known reference gas stream. When the sample and reference gas streams come in contact with the electrode surfaces, oxygen ionizes into O-2 ions. The oxygen ion concentrations in each stream is a function of the partial pressure of oxygen in the stream. The potential at each electrode will depend on the partial pressure of oxygen in the gas stream. The electrode with higher potential (higher oxygen concentration) will generate oxygen ions, whereas the electrode with lower potential (lower oxygen concentration) will convert oxygen ions to oxygen molecules. Calibration Analysis is by comparison of peak heights or areas to a standard calibration curve. To prepare this curve, known TOD concentrations of a primary standard (KHP) are prepared in distilled and deionized water. Standard solutions are stable for several weeks at room temperature. Water solutions of other organic compounds can also be used as standards. Several analyses can be made at each calibration concentration, and the resulting data are recorded as parts per million (ppm) TOD vs. peak height or area. Applications: Correlation: Many regulatory agencies recognize as the basis for oxygen-depleting pollution control only BOD or COD (preferably BOD) measurements of pollution load, because they are concerned with the pollution load on receiving waters, which is related to lowering the DO due to bacterial activity. If other methods described are to be used to satisfy legal requirements of pollution load in effluents or to measure BOD removal, it is important to establish a correlation between the other methods and BOD or COD (preferably BOD). Salient Features: a measurement of property of the sample, i.e. the amount of oxygen required for bacterial oxidation of bacterial food in the water, the BOD dependence of the oxygen demand on the nature of the food as well as on its quantity dependence of the oxygen demand on the nature and amount of the bacteria Another extensive study concluded the following: (1) A reliable statistical correlation between BOD and COD of a wastewater and its corresponding TOD can frequently be achieved, particularly when the organic strength is high and the diversity in dissolved organic constituents is low. (2) The relationship is best described by a least squares regression with the degree of fit expressed by the correlation coefficient (3) The observed correspondence of COD-TOD was better than that of COD-BOD for the wastewaters. (4) The BOD-COD ratio of an untreated wastewater is indicative of the biological treatment possible with the particular wastewater. Comparison: COMPARISON BOD COD TOD Definition The oxygen required when a population of bacteria causes the oxidation reaction in a population of bacteria. The oxygen equivalent when the oxidation is carried out with a chemical oxidizing reagent such as potassium dichromate. The oxygen equivalent when oxidation is caused by heating the sample in a furnace in the presence of a catalyst and oxygen. Analyzer Utilize bacteria to oxidize the pollutants Measured through chemical oxidation and catalytic combustion techniques Oxidize the sample in a catalyzed thermal combustion process and detect both the organic and inorganic impurities in a sample Response-Range 5 days – 30 mg/L 2 hours – 250-500 ppm 3 minutes – 100-100,000 mg/L Inaccuracy-Cost 3 – 20% / $500 – $20,000 2 – 10% / $8,00 – $20,000 2 – 5% / $5,000 – $20,000

The Pepsi Refresh Project Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The Pepsi Refresh Project - Research Paper Example Social media marketing entails using these social media platforms for direct marketing. Corporate blogs have become an important medium for enhancing communication with the internal and external customers (Cox, Martinez & Quinlan, 2008). Viral transfer of messages through corporate blogs reduces advertising costs while disseminating new about products and services (Scammel, 2006). The social media, being interactive in nature, has enabled customer involvement in content creation and value generation, which helps businesses to understand and serve their customers better (Abrahams, 2012). This enhances customer engagement thereby enabling the organization to build long-term customer relationship. Engaging the customer has become important in the turbulent business environment today. Apple or its iPod and iPad, CNN and Starbucks have been extensively using social media marketing for building brand awareness and brand community (Palmer & Koenig-Lewis, 2009). The number of active FaceBook users reached 500 million by 2010 with over 70% users being outside the US. More than 10 million Tweets or messages had been sent by March 2010 since its launch in 2006 (Baird & Parasnis, 2011). These have now reached a state that consumers and their virtual networks drive the conversation, which poses challenges for businesses. Companies are increasingly becoming engaged in social media marketing because they believe they will be â€Å"out of touch† if they do not do so. However, consumers have their own reasons for being engaged in social media platforms. They expect tangible benefits such as discount coupons for sharing their opinions. Thus, while social media marketing has a wider reach and great potential to engage and build customer relationship, it also poses challenges. It is also not known to what extent businesses are ready for using this platform as this is a shift from the traditional marketing media such as advertising through television and magazines. Moreover, the users might be increasing but many use social media merely to connect with family and friends. 2. Analyze the advantages and disadvantages of Social Media Marketing for business entrepreneurs. Social media marketing has several advantages such as that it allows business to gather information about their clients, create communities and encourage participation (Champoux, Durgee & McGlynn, 2012). Entrepreneurs that have been able to incorporate the social media into their business model have been able to increase brand awareness (27%), boost sales (15%) and improve customer service (11%) (Tuttle, 2010). They use the social media marketing to achieve a high level of search engine optimization (SEO) and natural search generate more sales. Increased brand awareness, increased customer acquisition and spread of information and other links is very fast through linking systems. This facilitates stakeholder communication but the disadvantage here is that the company has no control over t he content (Aula, 2010). Both small and big businesses have been harnessing the potential of social media marketing. Big businesses such as IBM own more than 100 blogs, several official Twitter accounts and a popular forum called developerWorks (Zarrella, 2010).

God is Just Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

God is Just - Essay Example The adverts of the latter view tend to believe in fun and joy as the main essence of life (â€Å"Teleological Arguments for God's Existence†). Thus, conventionally, four chief arguments related to the existence of God emerged: 1) the cosmological argument; 2) the teleological argument; 3) the ontological argument; and 4) the moral law argument. The present article deals with teleological argument. It is popularly known as "the argument from design" (Greek meaning of telos is design). According to this argument, the universe confirms the presence of complex life forms, from tiniest creatures to the biggest animals and plants; everything is in a perfect order being inter-linked; moreover, no one modulates these living beings but they are self-modulated in a perfectly controlled manner. The designer or creator has created life forms in a simplistic manner and, therefore, He must be a perfect and well co-ordinated planner to make this world run so smoothly maintaining the harmoniz ation, dexterity and a perfect balance of complex life forms. Thus, there must be a premeditated and decree brainpower behind these synchronizations, here emerges a belief that a force is certain beyond the nature and it is something supernatural! (â€Å"Teleological Arguments for God's Existence†). ... According to William Paley, heavenly bodies wander with perfect accuracy in their fixed paths and orbits. Every living organism possesses a complex life form structure meeting various metabolic processes and their requirements every fraction of second. These intricacies just happen and it is solely the creation of God (â€Å"Teleological Arguments for God's Existence†). Besides, there are individuals called Agnostic who raise the next question: "If God is all-powerful and all-forgiving, why must he send his son to die for his sins. Couldn't God just forgive the sins without sending his son down in human form to die? So what, so God dies for a few hours, how does that in any way forgive a sin...?† God has made us follow the path of truth. There’s a fear of punishment that is deep seated in minds of those who practice truth in every aspect of life, who are honest and do what is right, do justice and stay away from committing sinful acts, such as robbery, theft, murd er or abuse of any kind (â€Å"Good Question...Why Can't God Just Forgive Sin, Instead of Demanding Justice?†) . Although these arguments could convince millions, in the present scenario of rapid science development (with the conception of the evolution of life and various life forms, evolution of planets and the universe, forces behind each movement, theories, interpretations and explanations about the happenings taking place in the universe) teleological arguments are taken to some different path. According to the present arguments, spotlight lies on the fact of "fine-tuning" of the universe to support life. This is an objection to the Paley’s view as the present opposition is based on the theory of evolution and, hence, the aforementioned arguments are less

How did the Revolution in Tunisia lead to all other Revolutions in the Personal Statement

How did the Revolution in Tunisia lead to all other Revolutions in the Middle East - Personal Statement Example What was the history of the region? Tunisia is the northernmost Maghreb country in Africa and borders Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. It measures 165,000 km ² in area with an estimated population of about 10.3 million. It has a coastline measuring 1,300 km in length, harbors the Sahara desert in the south with the rest consisting of particularly fertile soil. The authoritative Ben Ali was the president of the Republic of Tunisia from 7 November 1987 up to the rise of the jasmine revolution in Tunisia (Carvin Web). He was authoritative, undemocratic and did not observe international standards of human and political rights. There were poor living conditions, rampant unemployment, and corruption in Tunisia prior to the revolution. In fact, thousands of young people from North Africa would enter Europe illegally to look for a better life. How did the Middle East divide into separate countries after world war one? After World War 1, many countries gained boundaries, others lost, yet others were unchanged. In the Middle East, Lebanon separated from Syria in a treaty signed in 1936. This was because of rising trade and education connections between Lebanon and Europe, and the large Christian population of Lebanon (Skahill 40-41). The population of Lebanon was either wealthy or very poor. The Middle East countries include Bahrain, Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Iraq, Iran, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Kuwait, Morocco, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey, UAE, and Yemen. What is revolution? The self-burning of Al Bouazizi who was a poor, young, and educated Tunisian who lacked employment was the beginning of expressing the injustices in the Ali regime (CNN Web). Revolutions are facts because they relate production and political power. When the oppressed majority refuses to be intimidated and recognize the fundamental weakness of their oppressors, they embrace redemption and act. They organize and

Master of science, financial engineer personal statement

Master of science, financial engineer - Personal Statement Example One of the reasons I studied engineering is due my excellent quantitative abilities. I scored a perfect 800 on the math section of the GRE exam. Despite my background in engineering I have realized that pure engineering work might not be what I desire to do with my life. My love for math can be put to better use in a related field. I am interest in applying for the master’s degree program in financial engineering. I want to pursue a degree in financial engineering because this is a growing field that has plenty of jobs available due to the fact that there is a shortage of professionals trained in this field. My background in engineering will only enhance my ability to visualize how to apply finance to optimize the efficiency of an engineering project. All engineering projects require the assistance of accountants and financial people. As a financial engineer I can become the bridge that connects the engineering and accounting/finance departments. My technical expertise in engineering will enable me to speak the language of engineers, while at the same time being able to communicate effectively with the managers and financial people. Upon further researching the salary potential of electrical engineering I realized that even though engineers are paid a very competitive salary which hovers around $60,000 starting out, the field of financial engineering is much more rewarding. The average starti ng salary for a financial engineer is $80,000 to $90,000. Investing an extra two years of my life pursing a graduate degree in financial engineering is an investment that will provide me with a tremendous return on investment. Along with the financial incentive one of the primary reasons that I want to study financial engineering is because the type of work performed by financial engineers is more personally rewarding to me. I love performing pure math and working with numbers. My college counselor told me that based on my math

ASSIGNMENT ON EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT AND ORGANISATIONAL RESPONSE Essay

ASSIGNMENT ON EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT AND ORGANISATIONAL RESPONSE - Essay Example Fast Food Industry The fast food industry has demonstrated significant growth and market opportunities which are characterized by the increase in disposable income among New Zealanders as attributed to the increased income and living standards. The trends of the New Zealand economy reveal an increase of monthly wage, benefits and bonuses among consumers. In addition, the busy lifestyles of consumers within the working class and institutions of learning have resulted to an increased consumption fast food. This is due to the cost effectiveness and convenience which characterize the fast food industry. It is in line with the market trends and business opportunities within the New Zealand food industry that Quick Meal Restaurant endeavors to invest within this market. Porter’s Five Forces Analysis Supplier power is one of the most important forces within the market which defines the competitiveness of a company (Pathak, 2012). The fast food production industry within New Zealand d epends largely on the ability of effective supply of raw materials for the production of high quality food products at the right time and quantity so that the needs of the consumers are met. The concentration of suppliers of food products within the New Zealand fast food industry is relatively high (Chand, Eyles & Ni Mhurchu, 2012). This reflects that fast food industries which require investing in this market have desirable market opportunities that they would invest in for competitive advantage. However, there are substitute food products within the New Zealand food industry which are likely to threaten the supply of fast food products. Porter’s analysis of market forces also demonstrates that the power of the buyer is one of the most significant forces within the market which determines the ability of a company to meet its business objectives (Pathak, 2012). The New Zealand fast food consumer is very sensitive to price and quality. This illustrates that the consumer factor s must be incorporated to company values for quality and price of fast food products for attainment of a competitive edge within this market. The threat of product or service substitutes is another external force within a market which influences the strategic competitive strategy of a company. For example food substitutes within large retailers and restaurants are likely to be a major business threat for a company that requires investing in the fast food market within this industry. The threat of new entrants into a specific market is described by Porter as a strong market force which determines the success of a brand within the market (Roy, 2009).

NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF HURRICANE KATRINA ON THE GULF REGION Essay

NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF HURRICANE KATRINA ON THE GULF REGION - Essay Example Moreover, while giving examples about the hurricanes that hit before the hurricane Katrina, it presents a comparative analysis of how the hurricane Katrina was different from those that happened earlier and why was it a major setback for the Homeland Security Departments of America. Furthermore, the book also describes the major factors and problems of the hurricane and why is it marked as an important event in the history of America. Also, this book gives details about how the government tried to help people recover all that they lost in this catastrophe, and what kind of role did the government play in helping them economically and psychologically (Hoffman, 2007, pp 25-89). Palser, B. (2007). Hurricane Katrina: Aftermath of Disaster. Compass Point Books. This is a comprehensive book, with easy to understand vocabulary and language. The book provides with the details of the hurricane Katrina that hit the Florida, rapidly moving towards the Gulf of Mexico, causing hundreds of deaths and heaving thousands homeless. Also, it states how the government failed to provide enough backup fur the people of America, as it was one of the most accurately predicted hurricanes in the history of America. ... Brinkley, D. (2007). The Great Deluge: Hurricane, New Orleans, and the Mississippi Gulf Coast. HarperCollins. This book written by the bestseller author, Douglas Brinkley (2007) epically describes the events that caused major devastation in the United States of America; the hurricane Katrina. The hurricane Katrina that demolished ‘Gulf Coast cities of America’ (Brinkley, 2007) and took away hundreds of lives within just five hours was one of the five most catastrophic hurricanes in the history of United States. This book highlights all the events preceding the hurricane Katrina, including the mismanagement of the government officials and the lack of preplanning in spite of the early prediction. Moreover, this book also records the stories of actual survivors who witnessed and experienced the hurricane, it narrates all the troubles that they went through and how the hurricane affected their lives. It states the emotional, physical and economic losses of the survivors and describes how they are coping up with their lives in the current time; years after the disaster took place. Moreover, it also identifies the role played the government to help the survivors. Plus it also plays a tribute to the unsung heroes of the hurricane Katrina, who sacrificed their own lives to save others (Brinkley, 2007). Brown, D. (2005). Hurricane Katrina: The first seven days of America’s worst natural disasters. Lulu.com Press. This book was written with the intentions of donating funds for charity purposes. The book narrates the whole event of hurricane Katrina that destroyed lives in America within just hours. It states how dramatically the lives of the victims changed

SSDD Forensics Issues Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

SSDD Forensics Issues - Essay Example The logical acquisition approach is based on acquiring a logical bit-by-bit copy of the directories and various types of files (address files) found within the iPhone file system. But, Physical acquisition implies a bit-by-bit copy of an entire physical store (e.g., a memory chip). Logical backups are considered a rich source of data files that can help build evidence. They can also provide proof of the pairing relationship between the computers that have been previously synced with the iPhone device if that computer was seized as part of the investigation. A physical acquisition has the advantage of allowing deleted files and data remnants to be examined. Physical extraction acquires information from the device by direct access to the flash memories. Generally, this is harder to achieve because the device vendors need to secure against the arbitrary reading of memory so that a device may be locked to a certain operator. The name of the backed-up folder is a long combination of forty hexadecimal numbers and characters (0-9 and a-f) and represents a unique identifier for the device from where the backup was obtained. This unique identifier appears to be a hashed value since it was the same unique name given to the backed-up folder by iTunes on both Mac and Windows operating systems. Within this folder reside hundreds of backup files with long hashed filenames consisting of forty numbers and characters. These filenames signify a unique identifier for each set of data or information copied from the iPhone memory. Backed-up data is stored in three file formats, plist files which stores data in plaintext format, mddata files which stores data in a raw binary format and info files which store encoded metadata of the corresponding binary mddata files. Figure 3 shows the Backup folder containing the backed-up files. Generally, the iPhone file system stores data in binary

Balancing College Studies with Work and Family Demands Essay - 1

Balancing College Studies with Work and Family Demands - Essay Example I also have to attend family gatherings during the weekends and holidays. On the other hand, in college, my lecturers expect me to study hard, do assignments and take exams to show that I appreciate my learning process. I also have to take part in co-curriculum activities such as athletics, music and theatre ensembles, student government and language clubs; all these are geared towards enhancing out-of-class experience. However, at times, I can become exhausted and unmotivated because of the amount of workload that I have to attend to, both at home and in college. As much as the college administration wants the students to focus of their studies, they also stress that co-curriculum activities are equally important. Moreover, for that reason, my class timetable includes a co-curricular session in which a student has to participate in at least one mandatory co-curriculum activity; this is according to college policies. In most circumstances, this turns out to be stressful in that I mig ht be having assignments that I am supposed to complete, but taking part in the co-curricular activity eats up my time, and as a result, I do not meet the deadline for the assignment, as I am forced to carry the assignment home. Even so, again, the failure of meeting an assignment deadline cannot be tolerated by my professor and this increases my stress level. At home, my parents expect my siblings, and I to perform certain chores according to a duty roster that they have created. The duty roster is to be followed regardless of whether I have college assignment or not, and when it is my duty it becomes very stressful since I am expected to accomplish my duties at home and finish my college assignment at the same time. After finishing my home chores at night, I retire to my room with the college assignment in my mind. By this time, I am so exhausted in the sense that I cannot fully concentrate on what I am supposed to focus on in order to complete my assignment with a standard that c an attract a high grade. The only thing that I can do automatically without any difficulty is sleeping. I wake up the following day at 6 AM with stress when I remember I did not complete the assignment, which I am supposed to turn in by 8 AM. I conclude that time management is my biggest problem since I am not able to balance my college work and family demands because they conflict with one another. I understand that as a student, maintaining mental health is very important, and this is achieved through a good time management. A good time management helps in balancing college studies with work and family demands. My stress level had increased because I was overwhelmed with both tasks at home and assignments in college. Time management will help me in dealing with this problem in that I will dedicate a specific time to handle one particular issue. All in all the objective of embarking on time management is to make certain that I finish my assignments in college and tasks at home on t ime. I realize that my stress starts when two activities that I am supposed to engage in conflict with each other. The conflict comes when I do not finish a task within the stipulated timeframe, and thus it hijacks the time that I am supposed to dedicate to the second activity. After a careful deliberation, I have decided that I will discuss with my parents the issue of my new schedule. The discussion will entailed creating a new duty roster,

Repetitive spreading depression Essay Example for Free

Repetitive spreading depression Essay Jefferson (1996) notes that fear of crime is comprised of two distinct elements: personal fear and the use of a public fear of crime discourse. The latter could be variably invested, and could be more about crime than fear of crime. It was sometimes inflected more with anger. Some were invested in other discourses, such as neighborhood decline. It has been found that personal fears were normally of particular crimes, notably burglary or sexual assault, and could vary: inside and outside the home; and within and beyond familiar, local territory. Women are found to be more likely to express personal fear and men are more likely to reproduce the public discourse, especially older men (Jefferson, 1996). In discerning the distinction between the two genders and how each is affected by the fear of crime phenomenon, it was found that sex as such was not predictive of fear of crime; however, the effects of gender increased fears of victimization among women and sense of safety among men. While women feared for physical safety, men were in fear only as far as crime against them, not necessarily that of physical endangerment. Age was influential and found to be especially true for men. Anxieties about declining health and strength were sometimes expressed and are perceived to be in direct relation with a males concern of aging and becoming unable to protect himself in the event of a crime. Age did not appear to affect women in the same level as it was apparent that women of all ages are concerned about being unable to protect themselves against the possibility of physical crime. While older women were more likely to experience this type of fear, it was in no way peculiar to an age group among women. Findings help to establish the means to derive a more complete view of a given social environment (Koehly et al, 1998, p. 3). Research findings have helped to explain the measurement problems of crime and the fear of crime phenomena as it relates to gender depression. In two groups of mostly local, young or middle-aged, low-crime women, levels of fear and anxiety exceeded very low risk. Three of these women (married with children) worried excessively about burglary, or physical and sexual assault, and were hence judged depressively anxious. Their anxieties centered on their children but also included other members of the family, as well, revealing a core anxiety expressed as traditional, caring femininity. The lack of identity beyond that of being wife or mother combines with projection of protective agency onto the men in their families, leaving them with excess vulnerability that manifests in fears of burglary and/or assault. For two women in the study, fear of crime centered on fear of male sexual violence linked to violent, alcoholic fathers (Jefferson, 1996). II. SIDE EFFECTS OF DEPRESSION During the past decade the prevalence of eating disorders has increased among teenage and college-age American women. This increase is probably caused in part by societys idea of the ideal woman as being overly thin in order to be beautiful. Research has shown that anorexia nervosa consists of several psychopathological components as well as the physical components, and that the psychopathological characteristics often include such things as depression, anxiety, and difficulty in social situations, as well as low self-esteem (Wilcox, 1996). Adolescence is an intense time and is normally a time of physical changes as well as psychological changes. Females in particular seem to experience stress that is not experienced by their male peers. Females commonly experience depression during adolescence and other characteristics such as obsessiveness, compulsion and general reticence are quite common. While most anorexics have co-occurring clinical depression there are others suffering from anxiety, substance abuse or personality problems as well as an increased risk of suicide. Parks et al (1997) notes that within nonclinical samples, body image distortions have been associated with lowered self-esteem, depression, and chronic dieting (p. 593). The vicious cycle that exists with depression and female eating disorders serves to perpetuate the mental imbalance. Indeed, the consequences are far greater than just being overweight. Obesity, in and of itself, leads to a number of other diseases and complications that can significantly shorten a persons life. Of the long list of ailments, those at the top include heart disease, some cancers, diabetes, high cholesterol and blood pressure, and gallbladder disease. However, the mental distress such behavior causes is a significant concern, for a poor emotional outlook also takes its toll on the body. A common denominator among women with eating disorders is the overwhelming feeling of inadequacy they experience. Attempts to control their problem usually prove futile, which serves to plummet them even further and further into the depths of shame and depression. Based upon an article from the British Medical Journal entitled Male Sexual Problems, the findings indicate that male sexual function is so completely interwoven with other factors that there is no one single factor that can be considered the cause of sexual dysfunction. Dysfunction is often the result of factors such as complications from illness, general poor health or even side effects from treatment of other illnesses. Impotence is the major common side effect of many drugs, and it has also been a known side effect of aging, anxiety and depression. Male sexual dysfunction is also a known result of all forms of psychiatric disorder either directly or indirectly, with the side effects of drugs taken in conjunction with psychiatric disorder leading to sexual dysfunction such as depression. As sexual function continues to wane, the incidence of increased depression becomes cyclical in nature (Gregoire, 1999). CHEMICAL ASPECT Establishing the determinants of depression and gender in relation to the death of astrocytes in the brain, one is compelled to investigate the myriad experiment data that has surfaced since it was first surmised that the two entities had any connection to each other. Indeed, it has been found that the lack of astrocytic activity in the brain is an integral component to the overall concept of depression; it is with this information that the psychological community has become better equipped to address the relationship between astrocytic death and depression. Considered for decades to be a disease of the insane, depression has finally been recognized for the debilitating and emotionally unbalancing illness it truly is. With an astounding fifteen million Americans suffering from clinical depression a full five percent of the entire United States population it can no longer be looked upon as nothing more than merely the blues. Additionally, another five percent are victims of occasional despondency, with one of every six people succumbing to a significant depressive episode at some point throughout their lives. Depression often hits the elderly more than any other age group; however, with each passing year the average age of sufferers continues to drop. The field of psychology utilizes a number of statistical procedures in order to effect the applicable findings. According to Kendall (1991), the typical procedure behind such research is accumulated by way of study reviews, which employ the use of methodological considerations. These include deciding upon outcome measures, regulating therapy quality, as well as investigating client and therapist characteristics and the therapeutic relationship (Kendall et al, 1991, p. 78). There exist a number of issues that serve to influence the comparison modes, such as side effects, compliance and quickness of action, which must also be taken into overall consideration when determining the data. Among the variables that exist within the framework of statistical procedures, defining whether or not there is a difference between gender participation is a significant consideration. One study in particular from the National Institute of Mental Health Treatment of Depression Collaborative Research Program noted the differences between male and female patient statistical findings after a number of procedures were rendered. Zlotnick (1998) notes that depending upon the type of treatment each individual received placebo/clinical management; cognitive-behavioral therapy; interpersonal therapy; or imipramine/clinical management it was established that the final outcome was not influenced by gender. While the role of gender was examined in the process and outcome of therapy in the treatment (Zlotnick et al, 1998, p. 655) by reproducing the same findings in relation to psychotherapeutic treatment methods, it was determined that the second set of findings were the same. Researchers have been making the connection for some time now between depression and the death of astrocytes, noting that the astrocytes being essential for the brains nerve cells have been discovered to have healing properties. Pennisi (1999) notes how neurobiologists are beginning to recognize the regeneration components of astrocytes. Its going to make [neurobiologists] look at these cells in more detail. It will be interesting to see if they can be purified and used in [brain] repair (Pennisi 1999, p. PG). Understanding the roles that neurons and astrocytes play in the body helps one to fully comprehend why there may be a strong connection to depression. Astrocytic responsibility includes maintaining the blood brain barrier (BBB), as well as providing structural support, protection and repair of the central nervous system (CNS). Neurons, on the other hand, are the vital links between electrical impulses and the nervous system. Repetitive spreading depression (SD) waves, involving depolarization of neurons and astrocytes and up-regulation of glucose consumption, is thought to lower the threshold of neuronal death during and immediately after ischemia (Miettinen et al, 1997, pp. 6500-6505). In postulating the hypothesis that the growth or death of astrocytes somehow affects depression, it is relatively easy to recognize the fact that without the necessary astrocytes in place, conducting the brain-healing processes that they have been discovered to posses, it triggers within the brain the inability to maintain a sense of perspective. A kind of star-shaped brain cell that helps support surrounding nerve cells plays a much more pivotal role in maintaining the brains vitality than researchers had thought astrocytes double as neural stem cells, the source of new nerve cells (Pennisi, 1999, p. PG). Wineke (1996) notes the importance of ongoing research into the very real possibility that the absence of astrocytes serves to adversely effect brain function. Twenty years ago, the ideas we are studying were considered eccentric and fanciful. Now, this is really where its at (Wineke, 1996, p. 1G).

Thomsons Argument Of The Trolley Problem Philosophy Essay

Thomsons Argument Of The Trolley Problem Philosophy Essay A utilitarian is concerned with providing the greatest happiness for the greatest amount of people, so in this first case a utilitarian would agree with Thomson and would say that it is mandatory to pull the lever and save the greater number of people. An opposing view would say that pulling the lever constitutes as a moral wrong, and would make the bystander partially responsible for the death. One has a moral obligation to get involved in these cases just by being present in the scenario and being able to change the outcome. Deciding to do nothing would be considered an immoral act if one values five lives more than one. In the first case, the bystander does not intend to harm anyone; the harm will be done regardless of which way the trolley goes. In the second case, pushing and harming the large man is the only way to save the five people on the trolley. in contrast, Thomson argues that a key distinction between the first trolley problem and the second case is that in the first case, you simply redirect the harm, but in the second case, you actually have to do something to the large man to save the five workers. Thomson states that in the first case, no worker has more of a right than the other not to be killed, but in the second case, the large man does have a right not to be pushed over the bridge, violating his right to life. To put the first trolley case in a different perspective I will present a similar case. Something has gone terribly wrong on an airplane and is inevitably about to crash and is heading straight to a heavily populated area. The airplane pilot knows that regardless innocent people will die so he turns the plane towards a less populated area, killing less innocent people. Was the pilots action to steer the plane in a different direction morally permissible? Thomson would say that the pilots actions were correct, because the greater populated are has the same right to live as the less populated area, and you are merely deflecting the harm to kill less people which is morally permissible because no rights have been violated. Thomson presents an alternative case to the second trolley problem to better illustrate her argument. In this case, a surgeon has 5 patients that are all in need of organ transplants, and they will die without the organ, but since they all have a rare blood type there are no organs available. A traveler comes into the office for a check up, and the doctor discovers that this traveler has the necessary organs that could save these five dying patients. The doctor asks the traveler if he would donate and but he sincerely declines. Would it be morally permissible for the doctor to kill the bystander and operate anyway? Thomson would argue that it is not permissible to operate on the traveler, because the doctor would be violating his right to life. This differs from the first trolley case because in the first case you are simply deflecting the harm as opposed to the second trolley case, and the transplant case, you have to act and do something to an innocent person in order to save the f ive people. In the first case none of the workers have more of a right than the other not to be killed, but in the second case the large man has a right not to be killed. In the transplant case, a utilitarian is concerned with the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people, so just like in the first case where a utilitarian would say to pull the lever to kill one and save five, he would do the same in the transplant case to kill one and save five. Thomson disagrees and states that in the first case killing one is a side effect of killing five, in the transplant case you are violating a persons right where the act could have been avoided to begin with. Thomson states that killing is worse a death caused by letting someone die. In the first trolley case it would seem rational to agree that the person is morally obligated to pull the lever and save the five people. In the second case, the person should not be forced to push the large man onto the track because in this case he is killing the man to save the others where as in the first case it is inevitably one or the other. It would also seem rational that the doctor should not kill the man for the transplant because it is similar to the second case. Although in every case you are sacrificing one to save five, there are situations where it is not morally permissible to kill the one person, such as the second case and the transplant case. In these case the persons right to life is violated, and therefore would make it morally permissible to kill them. In order for Thomson to justify her opinions she needs to identify the differences in both cases that is strong enough to make a valid argument. In short, Thomson identifies that in both cases there is an innocent bystander who is not responsible in any of the events, but has the opportunity to get involved in order to save five people instead of the one. She assumes that there is no relationship or tension at all between the bystander and the workers so he has a clear mind on what his decision should be. Thomson states that we need to focus on the rights of the people as a means to an end relationship between the bystander and the workers. She argues that in both cases the bystander does wrong to the person whose life he chooses to sacrifice, but in the second case where the bystander pushes the large man, there is a direct violation of his rights. By performing the act of pushing, the bystander is directly violating on the large mans right not to be killed. This differs from the fi rst case where the bystander pulls a lever to kill one and save five, because it does not violate the single workers rights; diverting a train does not violate anyones rights, but pushing an innocent man does. Thomson feels that this explains why the bystander is allowed to intervene by pulling the lever because the bystander can maximize the utility without violating anyones rights, whereas in the second case, in order to maximize utility the bystander would have to violate someones rights. The problem arises that in the first case, although the bystander is not directly violating the single workers right, he is indirectly violating his right not to be killed. Thomson replies to this concern by saying that although this is true but it being direct or indirect is not relevant when a persons right not to be killed is concerned.

Oil Platforms Case Study

Oil Platforms Case Study The Oil Platforms Case The Rule of Force in International Law I. Introduction This paper relates to the Case Concerning Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States) of the International Court of Justice and its decision on the same delivered on November 6th, 2003. The dispute is related to a series of events that occurred during the Iran-Iraq war 1980-1988. During the war, due to attacks on merchant shipping vessels in the Persian Gulf, the US and other states engaged in â€Å"counter-attack† by targeting two Iranian oil platforms and severely damaging them in separate incidents. The US argued that it was only responding to a perceived threat and the attacks were only in the interest of security in the region. Tehran, not buying this theory of self-defence put forth by the US, cited several violations of bi-lateral International treaties crying foul over such use force. The prohibition of the usage of force by states in engrafted in customary international law as well as in Article 2 (4) of the UN Charter. But both fall short of containing force that is used in the States exercise of the right of self-defence. The ICJ in this particular case had to assert whether the force used by the US was really pre-emptive in nature; if it was, was it proportionate. The court whilst delivering its judgment developed an interesting new theory on such use of force by a state, a theory which has only been received critically. This paper shall seek to explore this particular theory in light of the aforementioned case. It must also be noted that this being a recent judgment holds immense practical significance with regard to the US operations in Afghanistan, Iraq and the troubled Baluchistan and NWFP provinces of Pakistan. To facilitate easy study, this paper has been divided into three parts; the first shall be an appraisal of the facts of the case itself, the second shall be a study of Article 2(4) and the final part will be a review judgment. II. The Facts of the Case and its Backdrop The case arose out of certain incidents during the Iran-Iraq war from 1980 to 1988. The case before the international Court of Justice revolved around the legality of the use of force with relation to two specific attacks against Iranian interests by US forces during the course of the war. The first instance was on October 19th, 1987. The US navy launched armed attacks against Irans Reshadat and Resalat oil complexes, both located in the Persian Gulf. This resulted in the complete annihilation of one of the oil platforms, whereas the other was severely damaged. As justification, the US claimed it was acting in ‘self-defence and the attack was in response to a missile strike three days prior on the Sea Isle City, a Kuwaiti tanker rebadged as a US flag-carrier in order to better ensure its safety. The second attack occurred a year later on April 18th, 1988 when US naval strikes severely damaged the Iranian Nasr and Salman complexes, nearly destroying the former. This time the US resorted to its prior justification of â€Å"acting in self-defence† again by stating that the attacks were in response to an American frigate, the USS Samuel B. Roberts, having been struck by a mine whilst sailing in international waters near Bahrain. On both instances the US notified the United Nations Security Council of its course of action in accordance with Article 51 of the UN Charter. The Iranian Government in its Application to the court based its claims on the 1955Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations and Consular Rights between the US and Iran (the Treaty), not sparing basic principles of international law. The Courts (the International Court of Justice) jurisdiction was founded on Article XXI (2) of the Treaty. Article I of the Treaty provided that â€Å"there shall be firm and enduring peace and sincere friendship between the United States of America and Iran†. Article X(1) of the Treaty provided that there should be freedom of commerce and navigation between the parties territories: â€Å"Between the territories of the two High Contracting Parties there shall be freedom of commerce and navigation.† Based on Articles I and X(1) of the Treaty of Amity, Iran accused the United States of having breached the Treaty by attacking and destroying the oil platforms. It also submitted that United States â€Å"patently hostile and threatening attitude towards the Islamic Republic of Iran† was a breach of the very purpose and object of the Treaty of amity including Articles I and X(1), and principles of international law, and that the US was under an obligation to make reparations to Iran for the violation of such legal obligations. The US denied any breach of obligation with Iran under Article X(1) and replied that the attacks were necessary to protect its national security. This, according to the US, was covered by Article XX(1)(d) of the Treaty and read: â€Å"The present Treaty shall not preclude the application of measures: (d) necessary to fulfill the obligations of a High Contracting Party for the maintenance or restoration of international peace and security, or necessary to protect its essential security interests.† Also, the US, in another counter-claim pleaded unsuccessfully, claimed that Iran had violated Article X of the Treaty by attacking its vessels and laying mines in the Persian Gulf and â€Å"engaging in activities from 1987 to 1988 that were dangerous and detrimental to maritime commerce and navigation†. The US claims of military attack on merchant vessels and warships were not completely unfounded. During the from 1984 to 1988, known as the Tanker War, numerous vessels were attacked in the Persian Gulf and such attacks were perceived to be purported by the Iranian military by means of aerial attacks and the use of mines. The Llyods Maritime Information Service list noted more 546 incidents, 200 of which were directly attributed to Iran. Iran, however, directed such accusations to Iraq and claimed responsibility for none. It must be noted here that the Treaty of Amity was signed between the US and Iran back in 1955. After the Islamic Revolution of 1979 in Iran and the installation of the Khomeini as the head-of-state in all practical aspects, relations between the two states soured and was particularly before the start of the Iran-Iraq war. During the revolution, the US expressed its dissatisfaction with affairs in Iran by severing all diplomatic ties with the Islamic state. The American embassy at Tehran was seiged by supporters of the Khomeini and Americans were taken hostage for a considerable period of time. Irans previous democratically regime headed by the Shah had been seen by the US as an ally; this did not go down too well with its new Government which accused the US of â€Å"over-involvement† with its internal affairs during the past regime. Further, the new government of Iran saw the inability of the Security Council to prevent and contain Iraqs invasion of Iran in September, 1980 as the result of an anti-Iran bias in the Council and even in the UN as a whole. Under such circumstances, the Iranian regime saw the increasing presence of American forces in the Persian Gulf as a perceived threat to its interests resulting in the attacks. Ergo, this conflict was not completely unpredictable; nor was it unavoidable as it had been on the offing for a while. In this respect, the Security Council had failed to check the rising tension between the two states. As a body whose primary task is maintaining world peace and stability it had failed to contain such a conflict which could have been resolved had it played a more active role in mediation between the states. III. Article 2(4) The Blind-spot Article 2(4) of the UN Charter reads: This provision of the Charter however, finds itself lacking and is ill-equipped to handle a rather important aspect international armed conflict. Its blind-spot it has no provisions for prohibition of military threats or the threat of use of force. The ambit of article 2(4) is limited to actual use of military force and â€Å"threats† to impose economic or political sanctions are beyond it. According to the general scheme of the UN charter, a violation of Ar. 2(4) may be justified only on two grounds recourse to self defence and authorisation by the UNSC. This brings us to the moot question Are states free to reciprocate to threats when no armed attack has actually occurred? This question has been left unanswered and its outcome the many wars fought even after the UN Charter was adopted. Two perfect examples of such a situation arose in Europe in August, 1914, the beginning of the First World War and again during the Second World War. The question before a nation is whether to ignore the military threat or to issue a counter-threat. In such a situation when one party is advantaged by overwhelming military threat, the threat involved will become lopsided and there will not be any real escalation or build-up of bilateral tension. Any country will always place self-defence on a higher footing as compared to a policy of self-restraint considering the demands of national security. The prohibition on the use of force is found both in customary international law and, as stated above, in Article 2(4) of the UN Charter. According to the UN Charter a state is not allowed to use force as a response to any intervention that falls short of an armed attack. The criterions established for the exercise of such retaliatory force include requirements that the force used must be necessary to repel the armed attack; it must be absolutely unavoidable and the force used must be proportionate. The Nicaragua decision [Case Concerning Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. USA)] echoed this principle. Article 51 carrying forward from Article 2(4) too recognizes states right to act in individual and collective self-defence if an armed attack is suffered by any member-state of the UN. Under Chapter VII of the UN Charter, force may also be used to preserve or restore international peace and security in accordance with decisions of the UN Security Council. In the Nicaragua case, the Court rejected US arguments that US support for military and paramilitary activities in and against Nicaragua could be justified on a basis of collective self-defence. These activities included certain activity of the contras in Nicaragua, including specified attacks, secret mine-laying, and a trade embargo imposed by the US against Nicaragua. The Court found the United States was in breach inter-alia of its obligations under customary international law not to intervene in the affairs of another State, not to violate the sovereignty of another State, not to interrupt peaceful maritime commerce and not to use force against another State. The US had also violated bilateral obligations to Nicaragua under a 1956 Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation between the United States of America and the Republic of Nicaragua. In the Nicaragua case the US chose not to appear before the Court during proceedings on the merits of the case. The Courts jurisdiction was founded on the United States 1946 declaration of acceptance of the Courts jurisdiction under Article 36(2) of the Statute of the Court, as well as on the bilateral 1956 Treaty. IV. The Judgement The approach taken by the International Court of Justice in the Oil Platforms case was controversial. In respect of Irans claim, the Court decided to address the question of whether the US attacks on Iranian oil platforms fell within Article XX(1)(d), before moving on to considerwhether there had been a breach of Article X(1) as requestedby Iran. In examining the application of Article XX(1)(d) the Courtdecided to focus on whether US recourse to force had been consistentwith international law on self-defence. The Court reasoned that evena provision protecting national security interests could not have beenintended to sanction the use of force inconsistently with relevant internationallaw. The Court proceeded to find that the US had exceededthe boundaries of international law on the use of force, and this disposedof the US claim that it was protected by Article XX(1)(d). In this way, the case centred on the illegality of the usage of force by the US. Recalling the discussion Article 2(4), the Court found that the US had failed to produce enough evidence to prove an Iranian â€Å"armed attack† in the case of the Sea Isle City and the Samuel B. Roberts. The evidence furnished by the US was so inconclusive that the Court did not discount the possibility of the attacks being carried out by Iraq. The Court noted that the Sea Isle City, at the time of the attack, was in Kuwaiti waters and the missile was launched on to it from a distance of over a hundred kilometres. The target of the missile, considering the great distance, could not have been pre-determined and it could have been intended to strike just about any target in Kuwaiti waters. With regard to the impugned mine-laying activities of Iran, the Court was again discontent with the evidence provided. There was no conclusive evidence to prove that the mine struck by the USS Samuel B. Roberts was indeed an Iranian one. The region at that time was in a state of turmoil. Both parties were engaged in mining the conflict zone and merely because the impugned mines bore numbers matching an Iranian series, Iran can not be held guilty. Whilst leaving room for speculation with the issue of the origin of the mines, the Court felt that even if they had actually been of Iranian origin, the US attacks on the Salman and Nasr complexes were unjustified. Recalling the Nicaragua decision, the Court opined that the Iranian attacks, if at all they were Iranian, did not qualify as â€Å"the ‘most grave form of the use of force† and the US can not claim the defence of â€Å"inherent right of self-defence†. The US contended that the oil platforms were being used as military bases by Iran and were being used for the collection and reporting of intelligence on passing vessels. In this regard too, the Court found the American evidence lacking. Even if the accusations against Iran had been true, the Court opined that the attacks made on the platforms could not have been justified as acts of self-defence. The criteria for claiming the defence of ‘self-defence had been established by the Court while acting in its advisory role in the case of Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons; they were â€Å"necessity† and â€Å"proportionality†. The US had failed to make out a sufficient cause on both grounds. The Court noted that the attacks on the platforms were not ‘necessary as a response to the attacks on the American vessels and the US admitted to have attacked them as a â€Å"target of opportunity† and not as pre-determined military targets. While the US attack on the Reshadat and Resalat complexes might have been considered proportionate if it had been found to be necessary, the Court made clear its view that the US attack on the Salman and Nasr platforms could not be regarded as meeting the criterion of proportionality. Although the Samuel B. Roberts had been severely damaged it had not been sunk and there had been no loss of life. The Court concluded that as the US attacks on the Iranian oil platform were not consistent with these requirements of international law on self-defence they could not be found to fall within the protection of Article XX(1)(d) of the Treaty of Amity. Only at this point did the US get some reprieve when the Court turned to the Iranian accusation of the US having breached Article X(1) of the Treaty of Amity by interfering with the freedom of commerce and navigation between the territories of the two parties. The Court found that Iran had failed to establish that the US had breached Article X(1) on the occasion of either of the attacks at issue. In respect of the first US attack, on the Reshadat and Resalat platforms, the Court reached this conclusion primarily on the basis that these platforms had been put out of commission by earlier Iraqi attacks and were not producing oil at the time. Therefore there was no interference with commerce in oil. In respect of the second US attack, on the Salman and Nasr platforms, the Courts reasoning was that the US had already stopped all direct oil imports from Iran under an embargo imposed by Executive Order. Therefore, no interference with commerce in oil had resulted from this second attack. T he Court emphasised that Article X(1) applied only to protect freedom of commerce and navigation between the territories of the two parties, and its protection did not extend to indirect commerce in oil that continued despite the embargo via the territories of third parties. Accordingly, neither of the US attacks on the Iranian Oil Platforms was found to have interfered with freedom of commerce in oil. The US counterclaim against Iran likewise failed because none of the affected vessels was engaged in commerce or navigation between the territories of the two parties. Summing the case, in its dispositif at the end of its judgment, the Court stated that, by fourteen votes to two, it: Finds the actions of the United States of America against Iranian oil platforms on 19 October 1987 and 18 April 1988 cannot be justified as measures necessary to protect the essential security interests of the United States of America under Article XX, paragraph 1(d), of the 1955 Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations and Consular Rights between the United States of America and Iran, as interpreted in the light of international law on the use of force; finds further that the Court cannot however uphold the submission of the Islamic Republic of Iran that those actions constitute a breach of the obligations of the United States of America under Article X, paragraph 1, of that Treaty, regarding freedom of commerce between the territories of the parties, and that, accordingly, the claim of the Islamic Republic of Iran for reparation also cannot be upheld. V. Comments The Oil Platforms case is of immense significance in present times in light of the growing military activities of the US in the Middle East, especially in Iraq and Afghanistan. However, its detractors criticise the judgment by stating that it laid too little importance on the aspect of trade and commerce and the role it plays in armed conflict. This can not be ignored completely; after all, most battles are fought with a hidden economic interest for atleast one of the parties. The dissenting judges opined that the Court let pass an opportunity for more lengthy engagement with significant questions associated with the effects of armed conflict on trade and commercial activity. But, this cases primary focus was the use of force and in the opinion of the researcher it has done absolute justice in establishing its principle. The conditions of â€Å"necessity† and â€Å"proportionality† have not only been reinforced by the Court but also been developed to address the growing concerns of armed conflicts between states. As the future of Afghanistan and Iraq unfold before us and American interest in Irans affairs rises, the contribution of the judgment in the Oil Platforms case can not be ignored. It shall be the judge in assessing US activities in the region and will assist in developing the yard-stick of the usage of force. In a way future military activities of the US and other NATO allies will be moulded by it, ensuring a more secure world. Bibliography Harris D.J., Cases and Materials on International Law, Sweet Maxwell, London, 6th edition. Goodrich Leland, Hanbro Eward, Simmons Anne, Charter of the UN: Commentary Documents, Oxford University Press, 3rd edition. Sturchler Nikolas, The Threat of force in International Law, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2007. General List No 90, I.C.J. Reports 2003 Sturchler Nikolas, The Threat of force in International Law, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2007. See the Courts Order dated 12th December, 1996. Judgment of the Court, para 23. Counter-Memorial of the United States, Exhibit 9, referred to in the Separate Opinion of Judge Kooijmans, para 11. See the Courts Judgment of 24 May 1980 in the Case Concerning United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran. Judgment of the Court, para 23ff; Separate Opinion of Judge Kooijmans, para 5ff. Goodrich Leland, Hanbro Eward, Simmons Anne, Charter of the UN: Commentary Documents, Oxford University Press, 3rd edition, p. 49. Supra n.2 Sturchler Nikolas, The Threat of force in International Law, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2007. General List no.70, Judgment of the Court of 27th June, 1986. Ibid. Judgment of the Court, para 61. Ibid., para 72. Ibid., para 64. Judgment of the Court, para. 71. Judgment of the Court, para. 64. Judgment of the Court, para. 74. ICJ Reports 1996 (I), p. 245, para.41. Judgment of the Court, para. 76. Judgment of the Court, para. 77. Judgment of the Court, para. 92ff. Judgment of the Court, para. 94ff. Separate Opinion of Judge Higgins para 51.